Impotentie brengt een constant ongemak met zich mee, net als fysieke en psychologische problemen in uw leven https://zonder-voorschrift.com/cialis-zonder-recept.html terwijl generieke medicijnen al bewezen en geperfectioneerd zijn
¿Está buscando comprar Cialis en línea en España? Es importante asegurarse de que el sitio web que elija sea legítimo y seguro antes de realizar una compra. En comprar-farmacia.es, ofrecemos una amplia selección de medicamentos de calidad, incluido Cialis, para tratar la disfunción eréctil (DE).
Nuestro sitio web es fácil de usar y está diseñado para garantizar una experiencia de compra en línea segura y satisfactoria. Trabajamos con farmacias acreditadas y ofrecemos envío rápido y discreto para su comodidad.
También puede contar con nosotros para la privacidad de sus transacciones en línea. En comprar-farmacia.es, utilizamos tecnología de encriptación de datos de última generación para garantizar que sus transacciones sean seguras y privadas.
Si tiene preguntas o necesita ayuda para realizar un pedido, nuestro equipo de atención al cliente está disponible para ayudarlo en todo momento. Nos tomamos en serio su privacidad y solo ofrecemos medicamentos de alta calidad y auténticos.
Visite nuestro sitio web en comprar-farmacia.es para obtener más información sobre nuestros productos y servicios. Asegúrese de que su compra en línea de Cialis sea segura y confiable eligiendo comprar-farmacia.es como su farmacia en línea de confianza en España.
Langelaa.pmd
Original article Scand J Work Environ Health 2006;32(5):339–348
Do burned-out and work-engaged employees differ in the functioning of thehypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis?
by Saar Langelaan, MSc,1, 2 Arnold B Bakker, PhD,2, 3 Wilmar B Schaufeli, PhD,1, 2 Willem van Rhenen,MSc,4 Lorenz JP van Doornen, PhD 2, 5
Langelaan S, Bakker AB, Schaufeli WS, van Rhenen W, van Doornen LJP. Do burned-out and work-engagedemployees differ in the functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis? Scand J Work Environ Health2006;32(5):339–348. Objectives The central aim of the present study was to examine differences in the functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis between 29 burned-out, 33 work-engaged, and 26 healthy reference managers, as identified with the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale. Methods All of the managers were employed in a large Dutch telecommunications company. Salivary cortisol was sampled on three consecutive workdays and one nonworkday to determine the cortisol awakening response. Salivary dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate (DHEAS), a cortisol counterbalancing product of the HPA axis, was measured on these days 1 hour after managers awakened. The dexamethasone suppression test was used to investigate the feedback sensitivity of the HPA axis. Results The morning cortisol levels were higher on the workdays than on the nonworkday, but this effect did not differ between the three groups. The burned-out, work-engaged, and reference groups did not differ in the cortisol and DHEAS levels, the slope of the cortisol awakening response, and the cortisol : DHEAS ratio. The work-engaged group showed a stronger cortisol suppression in response to the dexamethasone suppression test than the other two groups, the finding suggesting higher feedback sensitivity among work-engaged managers. Conclusions Burned-out and work-engaged managers only differ marginally in HPA-axis functioning. Key terms burnout; cortisol awakening response; dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate; dexamethasone suppression test; work engagement.
Recent studies have expanded burnout research by fo-
opposites of exhaustion and cynicism, respectively (2,
cusing on its presumed opposite, work engagement (1–
3). Burnout is a reaction to chronic occupational stress-
Burnout is positively associated with illness and dis-
ors and insufficient recovery (4, 5) and is characterized
ease, including myocardial infarction (7), common cold
by exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced professional effi-
(8), and type 2 diabetes (9). To the extent that work en-
cacy (5). In contrast, work engagement is strongly as-
gagement is the opposite of burnout, one may assume
sociated with job resources and is defined as a positive,
that work engagement is associated with positive health
fulfilling state of mind. Work engagement is character-
outcomes. Indeed, it has been reported that work-en-
ized by vigor (high levels of energy while working, will-
gaged employees seem to enjoy good mental and psy-
ingness to invest effort in work, and persistence in the
chosomatic health (1). Any association between well-
face of difficulties), dedication (sense of enthusiasm,
being (burnout and work engagement) and physical
inspiration, pride, and challenge), and absorption (be-
health status is presumably mediated by (stress) physi-
ing fully concentrated and happily engrossed in one’s
ological mechanisms, the main candidate being the hy-
work) (3). Vigor and dedication are the direct positive
pothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis), which
Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.
Research School Psychology and Health, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.
Institute of Psychology, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
ArboNed Utrecht, Utrecht, Netherlands.
Department of Health Psychology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.
Reprint requests to: S Langelaan, Utrecht University, Department of Social & Organizational Psychology, PO Box 80.140,3508 TC Utrecht, Netherlands. [E-mail: saar.langelaan@tno.nl]
Scand J Work Environ Health 2006, vol 32, no 5
regulates the long-term adaptation of organisms to
that more attention should be paid to the hypoactivity
stress. Consistent with this view, changes in HPA-axis
of the HPA axis in stress-related bodily disorders (12,
functioning have been observed in many stress-related
26). In short, the overall picture is confusing, and it is
disorders, for example, (vital) exhaustion (10), the
hard to predict what is to be found in stress-related dis-
chronic fatigue syndrome (11), post-traumatic stress dis-
orders, either hypo- or hyperfunction of the HPA axis.
Adding to this confusion are the observations that posi-
Disruptions in HPA-axis functioning, due to chronic
tive well-being (27) and positive affect (28, 29) have
stress, are usually examined by investigating the level
been associated with lower cortisol levels as well. This
and course of cortisol during the day and the cortisol
finding would imply that work engagement may be as-
awakening response. The cortisol awakening response
sociated with lower cortisol levels.
is the acute increase of the cortisol level in the 30 min-
However, cortisol levels give only a partial picture
utes after awakening. It has shown to be independent of
of HPA-axis functioning. To complete the picture, we
the general cortisol level and thus provides independent
used two other indicators in our present study. First, we
information on HPA-axis functioning (13). Because the
included the dexamethasone suppression test, which
cortisol awakening response reflects the capacity of the
provides information about the feedback sensitivity of
adrenal cortex to produce cortisol, the measure is con-
the HPA axis (22, 30). Cortisol regulates its own level
sidered to be an indicator of HPA axis (re)activity (13).
by exerting a negative feedback function on the hypo-
A strong cortisol awakening response is generally asso-
thalamus and hypophysis and thereby inhibits the syn-
ciated with chronic work stress (14–16), the main pre-
thesis of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and thus also the
Unfortunately, so far, researchers have paid little at-
synthesis of cortisol by the adrenal cortex. This phenom-
tention to the psychophysiological correlates of burn-
enon is called the negative feedback loop of the HPA
out and work engagement. The studies that did exam-
axis. Dexamethasone is a synthetic cortisol and mimics
ine HPA-axis functioning in burnout reported inconsis-
the negative feedback effect of cortisol. Its application
tent results (17–23), and, to date, there are no studies
inhibits own-body cortisol synthesis. The extent to
that have examined HPA-axis functioning in work en-
which cortisol release is inhibited after dexamethasone
gagement. The central aim of our study was to examine
intake is a measure of the feedback sensitivity of the
psychophysiological differences, as measured by HPA-
HPA axis. Both studies that have used the dexametha-
axis functioning, between employees high in burnout
sone suppression test with burned-out persons yielded
and their counterparts, high in work engagement.
conflicting results. One reported lowered morning cor-
In chronically stressed or burned-out employees who
tisol levels in burnout after dexamethasone intake (23),
are not on sick leave, elevated cortisol levels during the
and the other found no differences between a clinical
first hour after awakening (16) and during the workday
burnout group and a healthy reference group after dex-
(20) have been reported, as well as lowered morning
cortisol levels (23). Other studies have shown, however,
Second, it is potentially promising to examine an-
no deviations in cortisol in burned-out persons (18) and
other product of the HPA axis, dehydroepiandrosterone-
employees who are confronted with high job strain (24).
sulfate (DHEAS), which is considered to antagonize the
In clinical burned-out groups (eg, people on sick leave
effects of cortisol. DHEAS is the sulfated form of
who received a clinical burnout diagnosis and who at-
DHEA and circulates in the blood in relatively large
tended psychotherapy for their complaints) the same in-
quantities (about 10 times that of cortisol). It has a long
consistencies have been found. Both lowered (21, 25)
biological half-time (7–10 hours) and displays a weak
and elevated cortisol levels during the first hour after
circadian rhythm (31). Higher levels of DHEA(S) have
awakening (17, 19) have been reported. Furthermore,
been shown to be positively associated with positive af-
there seemed to be no differences in cortisol levels be-
fect (32), positive well-being, and better physical and
tween burnout patients and a healthy reference group
mental health (33), whereas lower DHEAS levels have
during the day (17). The most recent and extensive study
been found in depression (34, 35) and in chronic fatigue
showed that the cortisol awakening response and the di-
syndrome (35–37). It can thus be expected that work
urnal cortisol course did not differ between a clinical
engagement is positively associated with DHEAS lev-
burn-out group and a healthy, matched reference group
els and negatively associated with burnout. However,
the only study that investigated DHEAS levels in rela-
Remarkably, in studies on other stress-related dis-
tion to different levels of burnout reported no differ-
orders that have the exhaustion component in common
ences between a high- and a low-burnout group (18).
with burnout, like vital exhaustion (10) and chronic fa-
Due to their antagonistic relationship, the cortisol-
tigue syndrome (11), lower cortisol levels have often
to-DHEAS ratio is considered a parameter of interest.
been reported. This finding led some scholars to argue
A metabolic shift of DHEAS production (androgen) to
Scand J Work Environ Health 2006, vol 32, no 5
cortisol production (glucocorticoid) has been found to
(MBI-GS) met the following inclusion criteria (41): (i)
be associated with illnesses and chronic stress (38, 39)
exhaustion ≥2.2 and (ii) either cynicism ≥2.0 or personal
and might thus be associated with burnout as well. On
accomplishment ≤3.66. Twenty-nine managers fulfilled
the other hand, work engagement may be associated
these criteria. Recently, the validity of these cut-off
with a shift towards androgen production.
scores has been demonstrated (42). The managers who
The aim of our study was to combine in one and the
scored higher than 4.67 (ie, mean sum of all 17 items)
same study the opposite poles of work-related well-be-
on the engagement questionnaire (UWES) were as-
ing, burnout and engagement, with the opposite roles
signed to the work-engaged group (N=33) (40). The ref-
of cortisol and DHEAS in the stress physiological realm.
erence group (N=26) consisted of managers with an in-dividual score according to the following inclusion cri-teria: burnout questionnaire (MBI-GS): exhaustion ≤1.5,cynicism ≤1.0 and personal accomplishment >3.66; the
Study population and methods
engagement questionnaire (UWES): mean score ≤4.67.
The managers who were willing to participate signed
an informed consent at the feedback meeting and re-ceived a package with an instruction letter, the
A total of 88 male managers participated in this study
salivettes, and a short diary to keep a record of their sa-
(table 1). These men were selected from a larger sample
liva sampling. They were instructed to conduct the sam-
of managers (N=338), employed at a Dutch telecommu-
pling the following week and were asked to return the
nications company. An extensive periodic employee
saliva samples and the diary by surface mail to the re-
health and well-being survey was carried out in this
searchers. The university ethics committee approved of
company by an occupational health service. The survey
was sent by surface mail, along with a cover letter, tothe home addresses of 450 managers, of which 338 re-turned the completed survey in a prestamped envelope
(response rate 75%). In the cover letter, the managerswere asked to contact the occupational health service
Burnout was measured with the Dutch version (41) of
to make an appointment with the occupational health
the MBI-GS (43). The MBI-GS consists of 15 items and
physician, who provided personal feedback on the sur-
taps three subscales, namely exhaustion (5 items, for
vey. The participants did not receive any monetary re-
example, “I feel mentally exhausted because of my
ward for participation but were freely offered a general
work”; α=0.93), cynicism (four items, for example, “I
medical health check about which they also received
doubt the significance of my work”; α=0.85), and pro-
feedback. During their feedback meeting, the managers
fessional efficacy (6 items, for example, “I can effec-
were invited to participate in the study if their scores
tively solve the problems that arise in my work”;
on the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey
α=0.83), which are scored on a 7-point scale ranging
(MBI-GS) and the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale
(UWES) met externally validated criteria (40, 41). The
Work engagement was measured with the UWES (3,
managers were excluded if they used corticosteroids,
40). The UWES includes 17 items that are indicative of
had asthma, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, cardiovascu-
three dimensions, namely, vigor (6 items, for example,
lar disease, metabolic or endocrinological abnormalities,
“At work, I feel full of energy”; α=0.88), dedication
had a body mass index of >30 kg/m2, or if they used
(5 items, for example, “I am enthusiastic about my job”;
alcohol and drugs excessively. All of these factors po-
α=0.94), and absorption (6 items, for example, “When
I am working, I forget everything else around me”;
The managers were assigned to the burned-out group
α=0.74), which are scored on a 7-point scale ranging
when their individual score on the burnout questionnaire
Table 1. Demographic variables for the burned-out, engaged, and reference group.
Scand J Work Environ Health 2006, vol 32, no 5
indication of cortisol as a subject characteristic, the val-ues of the two workdays were pooled for the analysis.
Saliva was collected on three consecutive workdays and
For each day, the cortisol : DHEAS ratio was calculated
one nonworkday. For the cortisol analyses, saliva was
as follows: first, the total amount of morning cortisol
sampled four times to determine the cortisol awakening
within 1 hour after awakening, called area under the
response, immediately after awakening and 15, 30, and
curve (AUC ground) (45), was calculated; then, the
60 minutes thereafter. The participants had to chew
AUC-ground values were divided by the DHEAS val-
gently for about 60 seconds on cotton rolls, which were
ues. This ratio appeared to have a nonnormal distribu-
then put into plastic tubes (Sarstedt; Etten-Leur, Neth-
tion and was thus normalized using a log(x+1) trans-
erlands). In addition, the managers were instructed to
take an oral dose of dexamethasone (0.5 mg) on the sec-ond evening at 2230 to examine the dexamethasone-sup-pressed cortisol levels the next morning. For the
Cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate analyses
DHEAS analysis, saliva was collected by passive drool
First, a repeated-measure analysis with the “within fac-
(saliva is put into the plastic tube through a short plas-
tors” time (0, 15, 30, and 60 minutes after awakening)
tic straw) 1 hour after awakening on the first two work-
and day (workday and nonworkday), and the “between
days and on the nonworkday. No cotton roles were used
factor” group (burned-out, work-engaged, and refer-
because they may have caused falsely high DHEAS val-
ence) was used to test the cortisol morning level and
cortisol awakening response. Second, another repeated-
All of the managers were instructed to follow the
measures analysis was applied in which people with a
time schedule strictly. They were asked to complete the
negative cortisol increase in the first 30 minutes after
sampling before breakfast and refrain from drinking
awakening (AUC increase) (45) were excluded. A nega-
coffee or tea and brushing their teeth. A short diary was
tive cortisol increase is indicative of noncompliance (46,
filled out during the saliva collection. The managers re-
47), usually caused by a delay between the wake-up time
ported the time of sampling, sleep quality, perceived and
and sampling time (14, 48), the result, in this case, be-
expected stress, physical activity, and food, drink and
ing the exclusion of 6 managers in the burned-out group,
4 in the work-engaged group, and 4 in the reference
The managers stored their samples in a refrigerater
group on the workday and 7 burned-out, 13 work-en-
(at 4ºC) until they finished their sampling schedule.
gaged and 11 reference managers on the nonworkday.
When finished, they sent the samples back to the re-
To test cortisol suppression the day after dexametha-
searchers by surface mail. All of the samples were
sone intake, a repeated-measures analysis with time as
stored in a freezer (–20ºC) until the analyses. Before free
the “within factor” and group as the “between factor”
cortisol was assayed, the samples were thawed and spun
was used. Five managers refrained from dexamethasone
at 3000 revolutions/minute for 5 minutes to obtain 0.5–
intake, of which one was in the burned-out group, one
1.0 milliliters of clear saliva with low viscosity. Corti-
was in the work-engaged group, and three were in the
sol was analyzed using an immunoassay (DELFIA) (44).
reference group. When the repeated-measures analysis
For the used technique, the precision of the intra- and
revealed significant effects, posthoc tests were used to
interassay variability was 2.9–7.7% and 6.2–11.5%, re-
specify the effects. Finally, multivariate analyses of
variance were used to test possible differences betweenthe groups on the workdays and the nonworkday with
regard to the DHEAS values and the cortisol : DHEAS
A multivariate analysis of variance was used to test
whether the three groups differed with respect to demo-graphics and the psychological measures. The cortisoland DHEAS data were checked for missing values and
outliers. Per sample point, cortisol, and DHEAS valuesthat exceeded three standard deviations of the mean
were excluded from further analysis (22). Missing val-ues and outliers made up 3.2% and 1.6% of the dataset,
The correlations between burnout and work engagement
respectively. All of the data were checked for skewness,
and, because of a nonnormal distribution, a logarithmic
The mean scores and standard deviations (SD) of the
transformation was applied to the cortisol values on the
three groups on the psychological measures are shown
day of the dexamethasone suppression and to all of the
in table 3. The groups did not differ from each other
DHEAS values. Within-person cortisol values can show
with regard to demographics, the number of slept hours,
some variation over days. To get a more reliable
and the time of awakening. As is obvious, the groups
Scand J Work Environ Health 2006, vol 32, no 5
differed strongly from each other with regard to all of
Table 2. Pearson correlations between burnout and work engage-
the psychological measures, multivariate F (df = 12,
ment. All of the correlations are significant at the P<0.01 level. (MBI-GS = Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey, UWES =
162) = 22.65, P<0.001. Subsequent univariate tests
showed significant differences on all of the subscalesof the psychological measures. Specifically, and as can
be deduced from table 3, Bonferroni posthoc tests
showed that the burned-out group scored significantly
and substantially higher on exhaustion and cynicism
than the two other groups and lower on professional ef-
ficacy, vigor, and dedication. The work-engaged group
scored higher on all of the work engagement scales than
Morning cortisol level and the cortisol awakeningresponse
did not differ from each other with respect to morning
Figure 1 shows the morning cortisol levels of the three
cortisol across days. No significant day × group and
groups in the first hour after awakening on the work-
time × group interactions were found either. In other
day and the nonworkday. A significant main effect was
words, neither on workdays nor on nonworkdays did the
found for time, F (3, 79) = 49.24, P<0.001, indicating
three groups differ from each other with regard to morn-
that there was a cortisol awakening response in the first
ing cortisol. The day × time interaction was significant,
hour after awakening across days. The main effect of
F (3, 79) = 3.46, P=0.02, indicating that there was a
day was also significant, F (1, 81) = 68.77, P<0.001,
steeper slope for the cortisol awakening response on the
reflecting that morning cortisol levels were higher on
workdays than on the nonworkday. The day × time × group
the workdays than on the nonworkday. However, the
interaction almost reached significance, F (6, 160) =
main group effect (between participants) was not sig-
1.85, P=0.09, indicating a trend for the groups to differ
nificant, F (2, 81) = 1.25, P=0.29; thus the three groups
in slopes on the workdays and the nonworkday. Table 3. Psychological measures for the burned-out, engaged, and reference group. (MBI-GS = Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey, UWES = Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, GSQS = Groningen Sleep Quality Scale)
a Burnout and work engagement were measured on 7-point scales ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (everyday). b The engaged and reference group differed significantly from the burned-out group at the P<0.01 level but did not differ from each other. c The burned-out, engaged and reference groups differed significantly from each other at the P<0.001 level. d The engaged group differed significantly from the burned-out and reference groups at the P<0.001 level, but the burned out and reference groups did
e Sleep quality ranged from 0 (good sleep quality) to 14 (bad sleep quality). f Standard deviation in number of hours and minutes (hours:minutes).
Scand J Work Environ Health 2006, vol 32, no 5
Cortisol [nmol/l] Figure 1. Cortisol awakening response on a workday and nonworkday, all managers in-
cluded. Note: the burned-out, work-engaged,
and reference groups consisted of 29, 33,
Time after awakening [min] Cortisol [nmol/l] Figure 2. Cortisol awakening response on a workday and nonworkday, excluding the man- agers with a negative AUC increase. Note: the
groups consisted of 18, 19, and 12 manag-
Time after awakening [min]
To substantiate these results, analyses were rerun
after the dexamethasone intake. The main effect of time,
excluding the managers with a negative AUC increase
and the time × group interaction were not significant.
in the first 30 minutes after awakening. The morning
Thus, as expected, there was no overall increase in cor-
cortisol levels and slopes of the three groups, on the
tisol after awakening. The burned-out, work-engaged,
workdays and the nonworkday, are shown in figure 2.
and reference managers did not differ from each other
Consistent with the previous analysis, a significant main
with regard to cortisol increase. However, the group
effect was found for time, F (3, 41) = 62.34, P<0.001,
main effect was significant [F (2, 76) = 3.43, P=0.04],
and day, F (1, 43) = 30.13, P<0.001, indicating that there
and therefore the groups showed different levels of cor-
was a cortisol awakening response in the first hour af-
tisol on this day. Bonferroni posthoc tests revealed that
ter awakening across days and that the cortisol levels
this effect was due to the lower cortisol levels of the
were higher on the workdays than on the nonworkday.
work-engaged employees at 15 and 30 minutes after
Again, the main group effect was not significant. In ad-
dition, none of the interaction effects was significant. Thus in contrast to the result of the previous analysis,
Dehydroepiandrosterone-sulfate levels and the
the increase of the cortisol awakening response was the
cortisol : dehydroepinandrosterone sulfate ratio
same on the workdays as on the nonworkday.
The means and standard deviations of the three groupsare shown in table 4 for DHEAS. The groups did not
Feedback sensitivity: the effect of dexamethasone sup-
differ from each other with regard to their DHEAS lev-
els, either on the workdays or on the nonworkday [mul-
Figure 3 shows the morning cortisol levels of the three
tivariate F (df = 6, 158) = 1.02, not significant]. Fur-
groups in the first hour after awakening on the day
thermore, no significant differences were found between
Scand J Work Environ Health 2006, vol 32, no 5
Cortisol [nmol/l] Figure 3. Cortisol awakening response after dexamethsaone intake in the burned-out, work-engaged and reference groups. Note:
groups consisted of 26, 31, and 22 manag-
Time after awakening [min]
the three groups with regard to the cortisol : DHEAS ra-
Table 4. Means and standard deviations for the burned-out,
tio on any of these days [multivariate F (df = 6, 148) =
work-engaged, and reference groups as regards the dehydroepi-androsterone-sulfate (DHEAS) levels. Discussion
The overall picture of HPA-axis functioning in stress-
related disorders is confusing—both hypo- and hyper-function of the HPA axis has been reported (12, 16, 18–21, 23, 25). The idea behind our study was that study-
cortisol levels for employees with a high burnout score.
ing the opposite poles of work-related well-being (burn-
However, the assessment of morning cortisol levels in
out and work engagement) would create enough con-
the study of Melamed et al was only based on one
trast to find differences in HPA-axis functioning. Ac-
sample, taken at 0800, and it does not provide any in-
cording to the results, the burned-out, work-engaged,
sight into the awakening response. Higher morning cor-
and reference group did, however, not differ with re-
tisol levels, but no difference in the increase, have also
spect to morning cortisol levels, the cortisol awakening
been reported by De Vente et al (17), for burnout pa-
response, the DHEAS levels, or the cortisol : DHEAS
tients. In addition, Pruessner et al (23) also reported no
ratio. Although the morning cortisol levels were higher
differences in the cortisol awakening response among
on the workdays than on the nonworkday, this effect did
employees with a high burnout score, but lowered cor-
not differ between the groups. The only difference was
tisol levels in the first hour after awakening. It is im-
a stronger cortisol suppression in the work-engaged
portant to note that the high and low burnout groups in
group in response to the low-dose dexamethasone sup-
the study of Pruessner et al were defined on the basis of
median split of burnout scores and not on the basis of
Our results with respect to cortisol morning levels
validated cut-off scores (as in our study). Consequently,
and the cortisol awakening response in burnout were in
the groups in Pruessner et al’s study were less extreme
agreement with those of Grossi et al (18, 19),
(and showed fewer differences regarding burnout symp-
Mommersteeg et al (22), and Steptoe et al (24), who re-
toms) than the groups in our study. This finding makes
ported no deviations in the cortisol levels of burned-out
it all the more remarkable that differences were found.
employees, burnout patients, and people confronted with
Lowered cortisol secretion in burnout has also been re-
high job strain, respectively. Grossi et al (19) only re-
ported by Moch et al (21), but this finding was based
ported elevated morning cortisol levels in female burn-
on 24-hour urine cortisol collection, and only 16 female
out patients on sick leave. Women with a high burnout
patients were included. On the basis of our findings and
score, but not on sick leave, and men (either patients or
those of earlier studies, we conclude that, despite some
men with a high burnout score but not on sick leave)
isolated differences, there is no convincing evidence for
abnormalities in HPA-axis functioning in burnout.
Furthermore, our findings are in contrast with
HPA-axis functioning also appeared to be normal
Melamed et al (20), who reported elevated morning
among work-engaged employees. We did not find lower
Scand J Work Environ Health 2006, vol 32, no 5
cortisol levels, as sometimes found in studies that fo-
nonworkday. These results do not support earlier find-
cused on the association of positive well-being (27) and
ings that higher levels of DHEA(S) are positively asso-
positive affect (28, 29) with cortisol. In addition, we did
ciated with a positive affect (32), positive well-being,
not find anomalies in the increase in cortisol in the first
and better physical and mental health (33), and nega-
hour after awakening. This was the first study to date
tively associated with depression (34, 35) and with
that included two opposite psychological states, creat-
chronic fatigue syndrome (35–37). Nor did Grossi et al
ing a strong contrast. Nevertheless, our sensitive design
(18) report any deviations in DHEAS in participants
did not provide evidence for deviations in HPA-axis
with a high burnout score. Therefore, we tend to con-
functioning in burnout vis-à-vis work engagement.
clude that there is no change in metabolic balance (cor-
The dexamethasone suppression test, however,
tisol : DHEAS ratio) in burnout or work engagement.
yielded an interesting finding, a stronger dexamethasone
Recently, negative results with regard to HPA-axis
suppression of the work-engaged managers. The extent
functioning in burnout have been more often reported
to which cortisol release is inhibited after dexametha-
and could lead to the conclusion that the role of the HPA
sone intake indicates feedback sensitivity; thus we can
axis in the long-term effects of stress on psychological
conclude that work-engaged managers have a more sen-
well-being is more complex than initially thought. It has
sitive HPA-feedback function. Interestingly, high feed-
also recently been concluded that endocrinological and
back efficiency is usually observed in concordance with,
self-report strain measures do not substitute for each
and considered to be a cause of, lower overall cortisol
other, but may reflect different underlying processes or
levels (49). Indeed the work-engaged group in our study
different aspects of stress responses (51). Furthermore,
consistently showed the lowest morning cortisol levels,
the physiological system is presumably able to compen-
although the difference from the other groups was not
sate itself on several levels in the axis. To reveal more
significant. We observed no deviant cortisol suppression
subtle disregulations in the future, more sensitive mea-
in the dexamethasone suppression test in the burned-out
surement techniques may be needed, like the combined
group, and this finding is in agreement with the recent
dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone test or
findings of Mommersteeg et al (22). However,
tests with infusion of the corticotropin-releasing hor-
Pruessner et al (23) has reported that burned-out par-
mone and the adrenocorticotropic hormone.
ticipants had lower levels of cortisol after dexametha-sone intake. In this case, the lower cortisol levels after
dexamethasone intake may have reflected the lower cor-tisol level they observed in general in the burnout group,
A limitation of this study was the relatively small size
of the group, the more so after those with a negative
In all three groups, the morning cortisol levels were
AUC increase were eliminated. The elimination needed
higher on the workdays than on the nonworkday, con-
to be made to correct for noncompliance. For compli-
sistent with findings reported by Schlotz et al (50). Fur-
ance to be enhanced, it is advisable to use eDEMTM
thermore, at first sight, the increase in cortisol in the first
(Aardex Ltd, Zug, Switzerland) electronic monitoring
30 minutes after awakening appeared to be greater on
caps, through which exact sampling time can be regis-
the workdays than on the nonworkday, consistent with
tered (47). A credit to our study was the selection of
findings of earlier studies (14, 50). This finding would
extreme groups, on the basis of validated burnout and
support the interpretation of the cortisol awakening re-
work engagement scores. As could be expected, the
sponse as an indicator of anticipation to activities of the
burned-out, work-engaged, and reference groups dif-
workday (14). However, the latter result needs to be in-
fered strongly from each other on the burnout and work
terpreted with caution because it disappeared when we
engagement measures. It should be noted, however, that
excluded negative cortisol awakening responses that
the mean exhaustion score in our burned-out group was
probably indicate noncompliance to the prescribed time
2.9, which corresponded with the scoring anchor “regu-
schedule. Remarkably, in the study of Kunz-Ebrecht et
larly”. Thus, compared with both of the other groups,
al (14), the effect remained present after noncompliers
the burned-out group reported relatively more symptoms
(people who reported more than 10 minutes delay be-
of exhaustion. However, this finding does not necessar-
tween wake up time and sampling time) were excluded.
ily mean that the burned-out managers in the current
However, in this study, only two morning samples were
study experienced extremely high burnout levels in ab-
examined, on only one workday, which resulted in a
limited reliability considering intraindividual variationbetween days.
We observed no differences between the three
groups with regard to their DHEAS levels and the cor-
In summary, our study documents that burnout and work
tisol : DHEAS ratio, either on the workdays or on the
engagement cannot be distinguished with regard to
Scand J Work Environ Health 2006, vol 32, no 5
HPA-axis functioning, at least not with the techniques
16. Schulz P, Kirschbaum C, Pruessner JC Hellhammer DH. In-
that we used. The basal cortisol levels did not differ be-
creased free cortisol secretion after awakening in chronically
tween the groups, although the work-engaged employ-
stressed individuals due to work overload. Stress Med. 1998;14:91–7.
ees showed a better cortisol suppression in response to
17. de Vente W, Olff M, van Amsterdam JGC, Kamphuis JH,
dexamethasone, this finding indicating a higher feed-
Emmelkamp PMG. Physiological differences between burn-
back sensitivity for the HPA axis. Although the latter
out patients and healthy controls: blood pressure, heart rate,
result needs replication in future studies, our study in-
and cortisol responses. Occup Environ Med. 2003;60 suppl
dicates that the robustness of the HPA axis as a stress-
regulating system has been underestimated.
18. Grossi G, Perski A, Evengard B, Blomkvist V, Orth-Gomer
K. Physiological correlates of burnout among women. J Psy-chosom Res. 2003;55:309–16.
19. Grossi G, Perski A, Ekstedt M, Johansson T, Lindström M,
Holm K. The morning salivary cortisol response in burnout. J
References
20. Melamed S, Ugarten U, Shirom A, Kahana L, Lerman Y,
Demerouti E, Bakker AB, de Jonge J, Janssen PPM, Schaufeli
Froom P. Chronic burnout, somatic arousal and elevated sali-
WB. Burnout and engagement at work as a function of de-
vary levels. J Psychosom Res. 1999;46:591–8.
mands and control. Scand J Work Environ Health. 2001;
21. Moch SL, Panz VR, Joffe BI, Havlik I, Moch JD. Longitudi-
nal changes in pituitary-adrenal hormones in South African
2. Schaufeli WB, Bakker AB. Job demands, job resources and
women with burnout. Endocrine. 2003;21:267–72.
their relationship with burnout and engagement: a multi-sam-
22. Mommersteeg PMC, Heijnen CJ, Verbraak MJPM, van
ple study. J Organ Behav. 2004;25:293–315.
Doornen LJP. Clinical burnout is not reflected in the cortisol
3. Schaufeli WB, Salanova M, Gonzalez-Roma V, Bakker AB.
awakening response, the day-curve or the response to a low-
The measurement of engagement and burnout: a two sample
dose dexamethasone suppression test. Psychoneuroendocri-
confirmatory analytic approach. J Happiness Stud. 2002;3:71–
23. Pruessner J, Hellhammer DH, Kirschbaum C. Burnout, per-
4. Halbesleben JRB, Buckley MR. Burnout in organizational
ceived stress and salivary cortisol upon awakening. Psycho-
5. Maslach C, Schaufeli WB, Leiter MP. Job burnout. Annu Rev
24. Steptoe A, Cropley M, Griffith J, Kirschbaum C. Job strain
and anger expression predict early morning elevations in sali-
6. González-Romá V, Schaufeli WB, Bakker AB, Lloret S. Burn-
vary cortisol. Psychosom Med. 2000;62:286–192.
out and work engagement: Independent factors or opposite
25. Mommersteeg PMC, Keijsers GPJ, Heijnen CJ, Verbraak
poles? J Vocat Behav. 2006;68:165–74.
MJPM, van Doornen LJP. Cortisol deviations in people with
7. Appels A, Schouten EGW. Burnout as a risk factor for coro-
burnout before and after psychotherapy; a pilot study. Health
nary heart disease. Behav Med. 1991;17:53–9.
8. Mohren DCL, Swaen GMH, Kant IJ, van Amelsfoort LGPM,
26. Heim C, Ehlert U, Hellhammer DH. The potential role of
Borm PJA, Galama JMD. Common infections and the role of
hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodi-
burnout in a Dutch working population. J Psychosom Res.
ly disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2000;25:1–35.
27. Lindfors P, Lundberg U. Is low cortisol release an indicator of
9. Shirom A, Melamed S, Toker S, Berliner S, Shapira I. Burn-
positive health? Stress Health. 2002;18:153–60.
out and health review: current knowledge and future research
28. Polk DE, Cohen S, Doyle WJ, Skoner DP, Kirschbaum C.
directions In: Hodgkinson GP, Ford JK, editors. International
State and trait affect as predictors of salivary cortisol in healthy
review of industrial and organizational psychology; vol 20.
adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2005;30:261–72.
Chichester (UK): Wiley; 2005. p 269–309.
29. Smyth J, Ockenfels C, Porter L, Kirschbaum C, Hellhammer
10. Nicolson N, van Diest R. Salivary cortisol patterns in vital
DH, Stone AA. Stressors and mood measured on a momentary
exhaustion. J Psychosom Res. 2000;49:335–43.
basis are associated with salivary cortisol secretion. Psycho-
11. Demitrack M. Neuroendocrine correlates of chronic fatigue
neuroendocrinology. 1998;23:353–70.
syndrome: a brief review. J Psychiatr Res. 1997;31(1):69–82.
30. Cole MA, Kim PJ, Kalman BA, Spencer RL. Dexamethasone
12. Ehlert U, Gaab J, Heinrichs M. Psychoneuroendocrinological
suppression of corticosteroid secretion: evaluation of the site
contributions to the etiology of depression, posttraumatic
of action by receptor measures and functional studies. Psycho-
stress disorder and stress-related bodily disorders: the role of
neuroendocrinology. 2000;25:151–67.
the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis. Biol Psychol.
31. Wolf OT, Kirschbaum C. Actions of dehydroepiandrosterone
and its sulphate in the central nervous system: effects on
13. Schmidt-Reinwald A, Pruessner JC, Hellhammer DH, Feder-
cognition and emotion in animals and humans. Brain Res
enko I, Rohleder N, Schurmeyer TH, et al. The cortisol re-
sponse to awakening in relation to different challenge tests
32. McCraty R, Barrios-Choplin B, Rozman D, Atkinson M, Wat-
and a 12-hour cortisol rhythm. Life Sci. 1999;64:1653–60.
kins AD. The impact of a new emotional self-management
14. Kunz-Ebrecht SR, Kirschbaum C, Marmot M, Steptoe A.
program on stress, emotions, heart rate variability, DHEA and
Differences in cortisol awakening response on work days and
cortisol. Integr Physiol Behav Sci. 1998;33:151–70.
weekends in women and men from the Whitehall II cohort.
33. Barrett-Connor E, Khaw KT, Yen SS. A prospective study of
Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2004;29:516–28.
dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, mortality and cardiovascular
15. Lundberg U, Hellström B. Workload and morning salivary
disease. N Engl J Med. 1986;315:1519–24.
cortisol in women. Work Stress. 2002;16:356–63.
34. Barrett-Connor E, Von Muhlen D, Laughlin GA, Kripke A.
Scand J Work Environ Health 2006, vol 32, no 5
Endogenous levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, but not
burger CJ. Synthesis of a cortisol-biotin conjugate and evalua-
other sex hormones, are associated with depressed mood in
tion as a tracer in an immunoassay for salivary cortisol mea-
older women: The Rancho Bernardo Study. J Am Geriatr Soc.
surement. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 1992;43:683–92.
45. Pruessner JC, Kirschbaum C, Meinlschmid G, Hellhammer
35. Scott LV, Salahuddin F, Cooney J, Svec F, Dinan TG. Differ-
DH. Two formulas for computation of the area under the
ences in adrenal steroid profile in chronic fatigue syndrome,
curve represent measures of total hormone concentration ver-
in depression and in health. J Affect Disord. 1999;54:129–37.
sus time-dependent change. Psychoneuroendocrinology.
36. Kuratsune H, Yamaguti K, Sawada M, Kodate S, Machii T,
Kanakura Y, et al. Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate deficiency
46. Kudielka BM, Broderick JE, Kirschbaum C. Compliance with
in chronic fatigue syndrome. Int J Mol Med. 1998;1:143–6.
saliva sampling protocols: electronic monitoring reveals in-
37. Van Rensburg SJ, Potocnik FC, Kiss T, Hugo F, van Zijl P,
valid cortisol daytime profiles in noncompliant subjects. Psy-
Mansvelt E, et al. Serum concentrations of some metals and
steroids in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome with refer-
47. Broderick JE, Arnold D, Kudielka BM, Kirschbaum C. Saliva
ence to neurological and cognitive abnormalities. Brain Res
cortisol sampling compliance: comparison of patients and
healthy volunteers. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2004;29:636–
38. Hechter O, Grossman A, Chatterton RT Jr. Relationship of
dehydroepiandrosterone and cortisol in disease. Med Hypoth-
48. Kupper N, De Geus EJC, Van Den Berg M, Kirschbaum C,
Boomsma DI, Willemsen G. Familial influences on basal
39. Parker LN, Levin E, Lifrak E. Evidence for adrenocortical
salivary cortisol in an adult population. Psychoneuroendocri-
adaptation to severe stress. J Clin Endocrinol Metab.
49. Huizenga NATM, Koper JW, de Lange P, Pols HAP, Stolk
40. Schaufeli WB, Bakker AB. Utrechtse Bevlogenheidschaal:
RP, Grobbee DE, et al. Interperson variability but intraperson
Voorlopige Handleiding [The Utrecht Work Engagement
stability of baseline plasma cortisol concentrations, and its
Scale: manual]. Utrecht (Netherlands): Department of Social
relation to feedback sensitivity of the hypothalamo-pituitary-
& Organizational Psychology; 2003.
adrenal axis to a low dose of dexamethasone in elderly indi-
41. Schaufeli WB, van Dierendonck D. Handleiding van de Utre-
viduals. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83:47–54.
chtse Burnout Schaal (UBOS) [Manual Utrecht Burnout
50. Schlotz W, Hellhammer J, Schulz P, Stone AA. Perceived
Scale]. Lisse (Netherlands): Swets & Zeitlinger; 2000.
work overload and chronic worrying predict weekend-week-
42. Brenninkmeijer V, van Yperen N. How to conduct research
day differences in the cortisol awakening response. Psycho-
on burnout: advantages and disadvantages of a unidimension-
al approach to burnout. Occup Environ Med. 2003;60 suppl
51. Sonnentag S, Fritz C. Endocrinological processes associated
with job stress: catecholamine and cortisol responses to acute
43. Schaufeli WB, Leiter MP, Maslach C, Jackson SE. Maslach
and chronic stressors. In: Perrewé PL, Ganster DC, editors.
burnout inventory—general survey. In: Maslach C, Jackson
Research in organizational stress and well-being: employee
SE, Leiter MP, editors. The Maslach burnout inventory–test
health, coping, and methodologies. Amsterdam: Elsevier;
manual. 3rd ed. Palo Alto (CA): Consulting Psychologists
44. Dressendörfer RA, Kirschbaum C, Rohde W, Stahl F, Stras-
Received for publication: 28 November 2005
Scand J Work Environ Health 2006, vol 32, no 5
DIRITTO COSTITUZIONALE DI ASTENSIONE COLLETTIVA DEGLI AVVOCATI DALLE UDIENZE PENALI E PROCEDIMENTI CAMERALI A PARTECIPAZIONE EVENTUALE DEL DIFENSORE 1. Premessa. Come noto, l’astensione collettiva degli avvocati dalle udienze penali è stata regolata dall’ordinamento con L. 11 aprile 2000 n.83, che ha integrato la disciplina dello sciopero nei servizi pubblici essenzial
Patient Information CIALIS® (See-AL-iss) (tadalafil) tablets Read the Patient Information about CIALIS before you start taking it and again each time you get a refill. There may be new information. You may also find it helpful to share this information with your partner. This leaflet does not take the place of talking with your doctor. You and your doctor should talk about CIALIS w